Ten Tips for Writing Academic Papers

Completing academic writing assignments is one of the most important skills you will need to develop as a student.  This is true regardless of your subject or discipline.

Based on my own experience writing and correcting papers and discussions with students I have compiled these ten tips to help you get going.  I have used these at the Academic Writing Club we set up in National College of Ireland to support students through the challenges of this process.

1 Read the task

Spend time reading and analysing the task you have been assigned.  Look for action words such as 'discuss', 'compare', 'critique' and so on.  Check if you need to provide examples or to analyse or deal with a particular context.   Write the task at the head of your essay and make sure you address every component of the assignment.

2 Get on with it!

Start writing straight away - don't keep putting it off.  Many students say they need to read first and write later.  It is better to read and write at the same time (see tip 4 below).  

3 Use the opening paragraph as your plan

Start with something like "In this assignment I will...." and then go on to describe what the reader can expect. Write this paragraph first. Then leave it alone - don't keep reworking it during the writing process - wait until your assignment is near to completion and then (and only then) rewrite the opening.

4 Read and research with purpose

Once you have a plan (based on your opening paragraph) you can then attack the required background reading.  The secret is to be 'purposeful' in your approach.  Continuously ask yourself why you are reading the specific text before you and what it will contribute.  Write snippets as you go. Don't get taken in by mindless reading and avoid 'nice to know' sidetracks - if you come across something interesting but not directly helpful to your assignment put it in a folder for future reading.

5 Make three points

I want to make three points about this tip.  First it's a useful starting point for a new topic - it gives a simple structure and the reader knows what to expect.  Second it stretches your thinking so you can easily compare and contrast the ideas you wish to discuss.  Finally, you can always keep going to add more and more points later.

6 Use paragraphs to provide structure  

One of the most useful and often neglected devices for both writer and reader is the paragraph. It is often possible to write separate paragraphs from different parts of your assignment and to connect these in later drafts.  An advantage of this approach is that your notes and memos will gradually build to become paragraphs.  Each paragraph should have it's own structure - pay attention to the key sentence that usually carries the main message of the paragraph. Make backward and forward connections with linking sentences throughout your paper.

7 Remember you are the writer 

Many students fail to grasp that a term paper assignment is essentially a learning task that requires their engagement in the process of writing.  It is more important to provide your own thoughts (even if you feel they are inadequate) rather than reproducing the work of others. Keep quotations to a minimum and cite all your sources using one system of referencing such as APA, MLA of Harvard.

8 Keep it clear

Write in a clear straightforward style.  Avoid complex sentences.  Make your argument with precision and elegance and use no more words than necessary.

9 Write a little every day

Writing can be tiring especially if you are not used to it.  It's a good idea to break the task down and write something each day until the assignment is due.  Even if you are busy with other things or feeling tired try to accomplish some part of the work - such as proof reading or formatting - in every session.

10 Write a summary and conclusion 

A summary captures the main points that you have made such as "here I have provided ten tips on academic writing for students" while a conclusion provides a key message that can be inferred from your paper such as "it's over to you now good luck with your academic writing".

How to Write a Literature Review for a Dissertation

Writing a Literature Review

Writing a dissertation is one of the great learning tasks of college education. However, many students find it a daunting process. One of the first challenges you face is writing a literature review and the purpose of this post is to help you get started with the process, to keep you on track as you proceed and to provide a means of self-reviewing your outputs when you (think you) have completed.

Let's start with a simple set of questions: What constitutes a literature review? What is it used for? and What distinguishes a good literature review from a poor one?

As the name implies, a literature review is a review of other people's work in a particular field of scholarship. Such a review is always directed and informed by the research question to be addressed. For example, if your research question is related to adult literacy then you will need to provide a review of other works, be they theoretical models, research reports or practice studies, that relate to adult literacy. Most importantly, a literature review cannot be of any value unless it is referenced to some form of research question or problem.

It is a common mistake for students to misunderstand the purpose of a literature review - it is not a means for the student to demonstrate wide ranging knowledge or to reproduce theory or to provide a history of developments in a particular field (although it can involve each of these). It is simply a matter of 're'viewing the literature from the perspective of the research question or topic. In other words, asking and addressing questions of the form 'if such and such says or has found this then what are the implications for my research?' 

The purpose of a literature review is to guide and support you and your reader in furthering the investigation or inquiry at hand. In academic scholarship you can and should build on the works of others - provided they are properly cited. 

Here is an analogy that might be useful: If you were planning to visit Rome then you would likely consult a guidebook and some web sites for information. You would be very interested in the section dealing with the specific area were you intend to stay, and you would also focus on the sites you plan to visit. To a certain extent, you don't need to read everything in the guidebook. However, you might need to bring the guidebook with you and consult it during your visit.  Imagine if each visitor had to explore the entire city for the first time - we would have very poor experiences in Rome. It is wise therefore to find out from other sources all that you need to know to make your particular journey as successful as possible. So (please forgive me if this sounds patronising!) consider the following - the value of a guide book is always considered with respect to the place and time of your visit and similarly, literature reviews are intended to support the research inquiry at hand.

In academic scholarship you can use a literature review to address the following issues:

• To outline a conceptual framework for your research question
• To develop an argument as to the importance of your research question and to discuss the wider implications amd context
• To discuss the theoretical and philosophical (epistemological) underpinnings of the problem
• To refine, focus and improve the research question
• To discuss relevant and related theory, models or frameworks
• To discuss other relevant research
• To discuss research approaches and methods (although a fuller treatment of this is normally part of a later section on methodology) 

A good literature review is never passive - the writer is constantly making connections between the work of others and the current research or inquiry. Indicators of a good review:

• It is constructed from and connected to the research question
• It is comprehensive in relation to the research question
• It is connected and well structured
• It provides a sound foundation for the other components of the dissertation
• The writer adopts a critical stance  

The most straightforward way to organise a literature review is to structure it around the central themes that arise from the research question.

Here are 10 questions you can use to self-assess your literature review:

1. Have I clearly stated my research question or problem at the onset?
2. Have I provided an introduction that indicates the structure of my review and a rationale for that structure?
3. Have I discussed each of the concepts/terms as used in my research question and provided a rationale for their inclusion?
4. Have I conducted a comprehensive search for, and included the key relevant theoretical and research works related to my topic?
5. Have I connected all parts of the review to my research question?
6. Have I adopted a critical stance in my writing?
7. Have I included discussion on other similar research?
8. Have I argued for the importance of my research question and framed it in terms of wider issues and philosophies?
9. Have I correctly used the Harvard Referencing System or similar?
10. Have I proof read the review such that it is free from typos and errors?

Wikipedia as a source in academic writing

Have you ever heard of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi?


Pestalozzi was a Swiss educationalist - he had interesting ideas for progressive education - at the start of the nineteenth century he was advocating an enlightened approach to schooling.  

Perhaps in a future blog I will further discuss Pestalozzi but the topic I have set out above is Wikipedia and I have introduced Pestalozzi as an example to support a point I wish to make.




Could I invite you the reader to open a new tab and look up Pestalozzi in Wikipedia.  

There you will find an excellent illustrated article containing biographical details and illustrations.  It is a good place to start if you wish to find out more about this influential thinker.  

Notice that the bottom of the entry there is a list of references and links for further reading (I have inserted these below).  Starting with these references and links you now have a means to explore the writings of Pestalozzi and commentary thereon.


For me this is the best use of Wikipedia - I find it a great starting point and signpost to other materials.


Is Wikipedia itself an appropriate source?   In other words, if I write an essay should I cite Wikipedia as my source?  I believe that, for academic purposes, Wikipedia is not an adequate source.  My main reason is the lack of visibility of the writers.  

Each time I use Wikipedia I can make my own judgment as to whether the information is accurate and useful - I base this on other readings and resources.  I would be very reluctant to put forward an idea and to suggest that my source for this is a page on Wikipedia.  There is always someone somewhere who is the source and it is always better to go back to the original.  

Still - its a fantastic resource and an excellent place to start if you need to find out about something or someone - did I mention Pestalozz - look him up in Wikipedia but don't stop there!  

References

Considerably more late-twentieth-century scholarly work on Pestalozzi has been published in the German language than in English.

• Biber, George Eduard. Henry Pestalozzi and his Plan of Education. Orig. pub. London: John Souter, School Library, 1831. Repub. ISBN 1-85506-272-0. Among the earliest and probably the most influential 19th-century account of Pestalozzi's work in English, this was widely read in America (for instance, by Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson) and in England. Contains translated excerpts from many of Pestalozzi's works.
• Silber, Kate. Pestalozzi: The Man and his Work. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960. ISBN 0-7100-2118-6. Written by a German-speaking lifelong Pestalozzi scholar, this remains the most recent complete biography in English.
• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

• Encyclopaedic documentation about Pestalozzi – Publisher: Swiss association „Verein Pestalozzi im Internet“
• PestalozziWorld biographical links - A handful of short and longer biographies and references to his methods
•  "Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pestalozzi_and_Pestalozzianism.

Plagiarism Reframed

Mention plagiarism to any third level academic and you are likely to be greeted with groans and laments.
This is one topic that gets into people's hearts – it leads to animated discussions and hard views. It is unwise to be regarded as soft on the issue.
It is annoying, very annoying to be reading something presented as a student's original work when it dawns on you - this is familiar - or - this is not the same style of writing as expected.
Plagiarism is genuinely offensive to many academics - it offends one's sense of academic integrity and is regarded as a dishonourable practice and a form of cheating.
Many also feel that the student is trying to make a fool out of them – the tables are reversed - instead of the assignment being a test of the student it is a test of the examiner.
Assuming the examiner will not spot the obvious is a form of insult.

In most institutions plagiarism is treated as a disciplinary rather than learning or teaching matter - student's face expulsion, suspension and fines if they are found guilty of the charge.
Remarkably, despite clearly stated policies and warnings to students - it seems that the incidence of plagiarism is increasing rather than decreasing. All in all it is of great concern and worry.
There is a need for a radical rethink of how we conceptualise and deal with plagiarism.

Most treatments of plagiarism begin with a definition and they look to dictionaries as the source (always a worrying sign) - something like – plagiarism is the act of passing off other peoples written work as your own etc..
Much of the academic practice centres on how to spot plagiarism and how to punish it. There is a good business in the technology of plagiarism detection (most people know the Turnitin software).
Of course, as the technology on the detection side gets better – so too there are many more Internet sources to copy and even services that will write your assignments for a fee.
We have the plagiarism wars – each side trying to outwit the other. As with all wars there are casualties on both sides.

“If I was you I wouldn’t start from here at all” said the wise Kerryman when asked for directions. So with plagiarism let’s leave it for a while and come at the problem from an entirely different starting point.

A constructivist pedagogy assumes that we build new knowledge through the interaction of present and past experiences. I like to refer to this process as the act of making meaning. For example, when I read good theory the ideas resonate with me – I connect these new insights with my past experiences. An essential characteristic of the constructivist model of learning is that making meaning is a unique and personal process. There is no universal knowledge just personalised knowledge.

Dewey contrasts the traditional and constructivist approaches to learning:

On the one hand, learning is the sum total of what is known, as that is handed down by books and learned men. It is something external, an accumulation of cognitions as one might store material commodities in a warehouse. Truth exists ready-made somewhere. Study is then the process by which an individual draws on what is in storage.
On the other hand, learning means something which the individual does when he studies. It is an active, personally conducted affair.

(Dewey, 1944 p 335)

Dewey’s own vision was in keeping with the latter active notion of learning expressed above. If you agree with a constructivist model of learning (and most theorists do) then there is no such thing as purely original work. Even these words as I write are made up of insights and ideas from many sources – true I have integrated these with my own.

So for most of this text – which I claim as my own writing – I am making meaning from multiple sources from people, experiences and feelings in my past. Note that where I cite from Dewey above I indicate in the format that these are Dewey’s exact words – I am inviting you the reader to make your own meaning.

When students are given written assignments they are being asked to make meaning not to reproduce knowledge.

Plagiarism is a refusal or failure to make meaning.

There are many reasons why people refuse or fail to make meaning. Sometimes students are confused about what is expected, some students are reluctant to express their own ideas as they feel this is not real learning. Other students worry about their ability to write and are in awe of other peoples words – how could I write it better than an expert. Some cultures are more reluctant to question great writings and individual meaning making is discouraged.

And yes – some students are genuinely dishonest and are attempting to cheat the system.

How can we deal with plagiarism?
The first point is that prevention is far better than cure. Cheating is really only significant where high stakes assessment is involved. In other words when students are being ‘tested’ and the result forms part of their grade. A strategy of providing early ‘low stakes’ or formative assessment events will provide feedback to students who miss-learn what is expected of them when they write.

Secondly, academic writing requires additional skills and specialist knowledge such as how to format, cite and prepare bibliographies. As with all skills people learn best by a mix of rule learning and practice. When used properly, citations and quotations may provide a form of scaffold for the novice academic writer while he or she is finding their own voice and meaning. But many students at this stage fail to apply the citation rules and often regard them as incidental - a question of format rather than core content. Early and frequent opportunities to practice academic writing with rapid feedback on errors and progression will counter this.

Finally, what of the cheats – what’s really happening here? I believe cheating is also a consequence of miss-learning. It is a failure to learn values. The values of academic integrity and the collaborative quest of knowledge underpins the third level education system. This frequently gets mixed up with the economics of qualifications and the preparation and entry points for jobs. A student who cheats believes that there is a short cut to a qualification and that the assessment is too blunt an instrument to catch them.

This may say something about the standards and practice of assessment as well as the character of the student.

References
Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and education (First Free Press Paperback ed.). New York: Macmillan.